“The presence of woman is an indispensable element of spectacle in normative narrative film, yet her visual presence tends to work against the development of a story line.” -Mulvey, 809
Laura Mulvey is a prominent feminist film theorist known for her groundbreaking essay “Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema,” published in 1975. In this essay, she introduced the concept of the “male gaze” and discussed its implications for feminism and the portrayal of women in cinema.
Mulvey argues that traditional Hollywood cinema is structured around the voyeuristic gaze of the heterosexual male viewer. She suggests that the camera in mainstream films often adopts the perspective of a male protagonist, objectifying female characters as passive objects of desire. Women are typically depicted as beautiful, passive, and lacking agency, existing primarily to be looked at and desired by male characters and viewers. The concept of the male gaze extends beyond cinema and applies to broader cultural representations of women, where women are often positioned as objects to be observed and desired by men. Mulvey contends that this objectification of women reinforces patriarchal power structures and perpetuates gender inequality.
Mulvey’s analysis of the male gaze has had a significant impact on feminist film theory and has inspired critical examinations of gender representation in various media forms. Her work encourages filmmakers and audiences to question the ways in which women are portrayed and to strive for more diverse and empowering representations of femininity. For example Cindy Sherman who challenges these ideas, and also Nancy Honey. In terms of what it means to be feminine, Mulvey’s work challenges traditional notions of femininity that are constructed and perpetuated by patriarchal society. She critiques the portrayal of women as passive, submissive, and defined solely by their relationships with men. Instead, Mulvey advocates for a more complex and multifaceted understanding of femininity that allows women to assert their agency, challenge gender norms, and define their identities on their own terms.
Overall, Laura Mulvey’s ideas around feminism and femininity have been instrumental in highlighting the ways in which gender is constructed and represented in popular culture. Her work continues to be influential in feminist discourse and serves as a reminder of the ongoing struggle for gender equality and representation.
Judith Butler’s theory of gender performativity, outlined in her influential book “Gender Trouble” (1990), has significantly influenced contemporary discussions on gender, identity, and social construction. Here’s an analysis of her theory:
Social Construction of Gender: Butler argues that gender is not an inherent trait but rather a socially constructed performance. Instead of being determined by biology or nature, gender is created and reinforced through repeated acts, behaviors, and expressions that conform to societal norms and expectations.
Performativity: Butler introduces the concept of performativity to explain how gender identity is produced and maintained. She suggests that gender is not something one inherently is, but rather something one does. Gender identity is performed through everyday actions, gestures, speech, and other forms of expression.
Repetition and Regulation: According to Butler, gender identity is not fixed or stable but is produced through repeated performances that are regulated and enforced by social institutions, cultural norms, and power structures. Individuals are compelled to conform to normative gender roles through mechanisms of discipline and punishment.
Subversion and Resistance: While Butler acknowledges the pervasive influence of societal norms on gender performativity, she also suggests that these norms are not immutable. Individuals have the capacity to subvert or resist normative gender expectations through acts of defiance, non-conformity, and subversive performances. By disrupting conventional gender scripts, individuals can challenge existing power dynamics and create space for alternative forms of identity and expression.
Critique of Essentialism: Butler’s theory challenges essentialist notions of gender that posit fixed and innate characteristics associated with biological sex. Instead, she emphasizes the fluidity, contingency, and variability of gender identity, which is shaped by historical, cultural, and discursive factors.
Intersectionality: While Butler primarily focuses on the performative aspect of gender, her theory intersects with broader discussions of intersectionality, which highlight how gender intersects with other dimensions of identity such as race, class, sexuality, and disability. Intersectional perspectives enrich our understanding of how power operates within social structures and shapes individuals’ experiences of gender performativity.
Overall, Judith Butler’s theory of gender performativity has been highly influential in feminist, queer, and gender studies, challenging conventional understandings of gender and opening up new avenues for critical inquiry and social transformation. However, her work has also generated debates and critiques, particularly regarding its accessibility, applicability across diverse cultural contexts, and implications for political activism.
Why is it important in relation to my personal study?
This theory links heavily with Cindy Sherman’s ‘Passive Pictures’ as the artists are performing/ look a certain way to exaggerate the male gaze. Its important to understand this theory as some pictures I create will be staged/ set up a certain way to create a parodic representation. The theory can also link with Observe, Seek and challenge as it observes the way gender is presented and challenges the dominant ideologies around femininity in a parodic way.
“I wish I could treat every day as Halloween, and get dressed up and go out into the world as some eccentric character.”
The photographs of Cindy Sherman often capture iconic representations of women while offering a critical approach. They can be interpreted as questioning gender norms through the lens of feminist art. Her work usually features photographs that depict herself dressed and made up as different female characters. Sherman’s photos are often interpreted as feminist art since her works raise questions regarding the objectification of women by the male gaze and the construction of the female gender. To better understand how Cindy Sherman’s photographs challenge the representation of women, it is important to know about the thoughts of feminist theorists such as Laura Mulvey and Judith Butler – which in a separate blog post I have explored in more depth as its important to deeply understand the theories and ideas surrounding femininity and specifically around the male gaze.
Many pictures of Cindy Sherman’s Untitled Film Stills show situations that come across as uncomfortable, creepy, or even terrifying since we see the depicted woman in a vulnerable position. The viewer becomes an inappropriate spectator. We find ourselves in the role of a voyeur who preys on vulnerable women. We become confronted with the negative implications of the way the media – especially movies – depicts women. The male gaze is often present in Cindy Sherman’s artworks but she subtly changes the perspectives, expressions, and circumstances. Those changes expose this gaze that wants to stay hidden during the act of observing and objectifying the female body. In this particular image above it shows a woman waiting alone on the roadside with her luggage standing with her back facing the camera which indicates that she is not aware of being watched. The ominous scenery is enhanced by the cloudy sky and emphasis on the seemingly endless road. The picture makes the audience part of a threatening situation they do not necessarily want to be a part of. It even indicates that the viewer who is only able to see the woman’s back is the one who poses a threat.
CINDY SHERMAN – PASSIVE PICTURES
Laura Mulvey characterizes the depiction of women in her essay as passive, erotic, and accordingly made up to match male fantasies and desires. Cindy Sherman uses clothes, make-up, wigs, and different poses to imitate this portrayal of passive, sexualized women that comply with those fantasies. While Sherman still operates within the methods of the male gaze by portraying women in their underwear, heavy make-up, or typically female costumes, her artworks still criticize this way of representation.
This photograph shows a woman posing in underwear on a bed. Her face, though, seems to parody the whole situation. The woman’s expression looks overly dreamy and even a little silly. It seems as if Sherman is making fun of the passive and typically feminine representations of women since she did not only pose for the picture but is also the artist that orchestrated the photo.
Gender as a Performative Act in Cindy Sherman’s Artworks – Links to Judith butler (separate blog post)
Cindy Sherman’s artworks seem to demonstrate this performance of gender by depicting stereotypical images of women that can also be seen in movies. The pictures illustrate the performative act of “being female” through Sherman’s changing use of wigs, make-up, and clothing. Even though every artwork of Sherman shows the same person, the artist’s masquerade makes it possible to portray various types of women that are all subject to the male gaze. By performing the different ways of how women are supposed to look to be considered typically female, Sherman’s feminist art exposes the artificially and culturally constructed idea of gender The altering costumes, hair, and poses produce a multitude of individuals even though Sherman is the only person who is visible in her works. The hair colour, attire, make-up, environment, expression, and posing changes in every picture to match a particular stereotype of womanhood.
The characters in Sherman’s photos are often an exaggeration of widely represented female identities. Since this exaggeration and masquerade is visible through heavy make-up or distinctive clothing, the works appear to reveal the artificial construction of what is supposed to make a person female, such as wearing clothes typical for a housewife or the extensive use of eyeliner.
How Cindy Sherman’s work has inspired me:
The way Sherman changes the small things in her images to deflect the male gaze however still give the sense that its to do with the male gaze. The critical way she changes the perspectives, expressions, and circumstances. Her pictures create an intruding feeling forcing the viewer to think about the image and due to stereotypes people are quick to realise that its representing the male gaze. I also like how whilst also carefully portraying images which somewhat make women look vulnerable she also uses ‘passive pictures’ and dapples into Judith Butlers theory of Gender Performativity which creates this parodic feeling towards the male gaze, she exemplifies this using makeup, costumes, wigs and poses.
Nancy Honey created a photobook demonstrating what makes her feminine and what it means to be feminine, constructed in her own eyes and perspective.
Nancy Honey is a British photographer known for her documentary-style portraiture and her exploration of themes related to women’s lives, identity, and social issues. One of her notable projects is indeed titled “Woman to Woman.”
“Woman to Woman” is a photography project by Nancy Honey that captures the lives and experiences of women from various backgrounds, cultures, and ages. Through her lens, Honey aims to celebrate the diversity and richness of women’s experiences, highlighting their strength, resilience, and unique stories. The project often features intimate and candid portraits of women in their everyday environments, allowing viewers to connect with the subjects on a personal level and gain insight into their lives. “Woman to Woman” seeks to empower women by giving them a platform to share their voices and experiences while challenging stereotypes and societal norms. Nancy Honey’s work is characterized by its sensitivity, authenticity, and ability to capture the essence of her subjects. Through projects like “Woman to Woman,” she contributes to the ongoing dialogue about gender, identity, and equality, inviting viewers to reflect on their own perceptions and attitudes towards women in society. Honey’s photography has been exhibited internationally and has received critical acclaim for its humanistic approach and compelling storytelling. Her work continues to inspire and provoke thought on issues related to gender, diversity, and representation in contemporary society.
‘In this body of work I set out to define and separate the various strands that make up my sense of my own femininity. How does sexuality manifest itself in me and what is the difference between what I feel and the ubiquitous stereotypical mass cultural images that surround me? How conditioned are my responses?’
In her work she set out to define and separate the various strands that make up a sense of her own femininity. How does sexuality manifest itself in her and what is the difference between the images of feminine sexuality and gender that have become stereotypic in our culture and how does she feel about herself? How does her reality relate to the cultural ideal? How conditioned are her responses?
Nancy’s work inspires me as its personal to her and her own ideas on femininity. I like the way she has presented her work and the range of colours she has in her project. The range of portraits shows how much she has experimented.
The front cover of her book being a standard representation of feminity, this gives the book a good basis and introduction to the theme. However gives off the impression that there will be more ideas.
Honey presents each page with three pictures next to each other, the common theme being specific clothing and colours and then one more creative picture that id say pulls it all together.
Several key forms of gaze can be identified in photographic, filmic or televisual texts, or in figurative graphic art. The most obvious typology is based on who is doing the looking, of which the following are the most commonly cited:
the spectator’s gaze: the gaze of the viewer at an image of a person (or animal, or object) in the text;
the intra-diegetic gaze: a gaze of one depicted person at another (or at an animal or an object) within the world of the text (typically depicted in filmic and televisual media by a subjective ‘point-of-view shot’);
the direct [or extra-diegetic] address to the viewer: the gaze of a person (or quasi-human being) depicted in the text looking ‘out of the frame’ as if at the viewer, with associated gestures and postures (in some genres, direct address is studiously avoided);
the look of the camera– the way that the camera itself appears to look at the people (or animals or objects) depicted; less metaphorically, the gaze of the film-maker or photographer.
In addition to the major forms of gaze listed above, we should also note several other types of gaze which are less often mentioned:
the gaze of a bystander – outside the world of the text, the gaze of another individual in the viewer’s social world catching the latter in the act of viewing – this can be highly charged, e.g. where the text is erotic (Willemen 1992);
the averted gaze– a depicted person’s noticeable avoidance of the gaze of another, or of the camera lens or artist (and thus of the viewer) – this may involve looking up, looking down or looking away (Dyer 1982);
the gaze of an audience within the text – certain kinds of popular televisual texts (such as game shows) often include shots of an audience watching those performing in the ‘text within a text’;
the editorial gaze – ‘the whole institutional process by which some portion of the photographer’s gaze is chosen for use and emphasis’ (Lutz & Collins 1994, 368)
MALE GAZE
The male gaze can be thought of as the process of depicting women from the perspective of a presumed heterosexual male viewpoint. This reduces female characters to simply being a female body that is depicted for the visual pleasure of male characters and a male audience.
What is ‘gaze’ in photography?
In portraits, the ‘gaze’ describes the way the artist and sitter look at each other, and the way we as viewers look at the person portrayed. In exploring the gaze, we analyse: The sitter’s gaze: where the sitter is looking and what their expression is.
Good example of male gaze:
Examples of the male gaze are ubiquitous in film and include scenes where women are approached unsuspectedly by a man, slow camera pans, and tropes involving male heroes.
As Laura Mulvey, a feminist theorist, described in her essay “Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema”, this conceptualisation of femininity has little to do with a female perspective. Instead, it is a product of the “male gaze” . Mulvey argued that when visualised, women tend to be portrayed as passive, fragile, and sexualised objects meant to be looked at and, consequently, used by the male spectator, who can be either present or implied . Using Freudian terminology, Mulvey explained that this “fetishistic scopophilia [i.e. drawing pleasure from just looking] builds up the physical beauty of the object [i.e. the woman], transforming it into something satisfying in itself ” . Accordingly, rather than an independent individual, a woman and her identity are constructed in the (audio) visual media as a consumable product designated to please the male spectator.
cindy sherman – artist reference
nancy honey – artist reference
laura mulvey, judith butler – blog post
MY INTENDED RESPONSE TO THIS:
experiment with camera angles and how it can reflect the gaze/ perspective.
female gaze
focusing on the body and dance, specifically ballet
a person who watches or notices something.’to a casual observer, he was at peace’.
a person who follows events closely and comments publicly on them. ;some observers expect interest rates to rise’.
a person posted in an official capacity to an area to monitor political or military events ‘elections scrutinized by international observers.’
SYNONYMS: spectator, onlooker, watcher, voyeur, looker on, fly on the wall, viewer, witness, eyewitness, bystander, sightseer, commentator, reporter, blogger, monitor.
SEEK
VERB
attempt to find (something):’they came here to seek shelter from biting winter winds’ :SIMILAR: look for, be on the lookout for, search for, try to find, look about for
attempt or desire to obtain or achieve (something): ‘the new regime sought his extradition’. ‘her parents had never sought to interfere with her freedom’ SIMILAR: pursue, go after, go for, tr, attempt, endeavour, strive.
ask for (something) from someone: ‘he sought help from the police’. SIMILAR: ask for, request solicit, call on, invite, entre, beg for
(SEEK SOMEONE/SOMETHING OUT)
CHALLENGE
To call to someone to participate in a competitive situation or fight to decide who is superior in terms of ability or strength. SIMILAR: dare, provocation, summons
a call to prove or justify something ‘a challenge to the legality of the banning order’. SIMILAR: opposition, defiance, ultimatum, confrontation with.
VERB
invite (someone) to engage in a contest. SIMILAR: dare, summon, invite, bid, throw down the gauntlet, to defy someone to do something.
dispute the truth or validity of: ‘it is possible to challenge the reports assumptions’ SIMILAR: question, take exception to, confront, dispute, take issue with.
